Buddhism: A
General Outline
Dr. Sunthorn Plamintr
Historical perspective of Buddhism
The word Buddhism is derived from Buddha,
meaning the Enlightened One
or the Awakened One. Buddha is not a proper name, but a generic
term or appellative,
referring to a founder of a religion, one who has attained supreme
enlightenment and who
is regarded as superior to all other beings, human or divine, by
virtue of his knowledge
of the Truth (Dhamma). Buddhism is therefore not just a faith, but
a religion based on
supreme enlightenment; it is a system of teachings and practice
with enlightenment as its
ultimate goal.
From its origins in India, Buddhism
spread far and wide to various parts of the world.
At one time it was the largest world religion, commanding one
fifth of the total world
population. As such it was one of the greatest civilizing forces
the world has known. As
H. G. Wells puts it, "Buddhism has done more for the advance of
world civilization
than any other influence in the chronicles of mankind." Today, it
has become
increasingly popular in the United States and other countries in
the West. Its current
following is reported to be over 300 millions.
Buddhism arose within the cultural
milieus of Brahmanism, which came to be known in its
present form as Hinduism. But Buddhism was a separate religion,
never an offshoot of the
older faith, as sometimes claimed by historians. Buddhism deeply
influenced Hinduism,
which later incorporated much of the Buddhist thought into its own
philosophical system.
It succeeded, through centuries of relentless persecution and
assimilation, in replacing
Buddhism as India's major religion. It is also believed by some
Christian scholars that
Buddhism may have exerted an influence on early Christianity, when
it spread westward from
India during the reign of Ashoka, some two centuries before the
birth of Jesus Christ, and
flourished in the regions where Christ grew up, till the early
days of Christianity. There
is a strong belief among some scholars that in his early years
Christ may have even
studied and trained under Buddhist masters of the time. There are,
of course, many who
refute this idea.
Institutional
makeup
An institutional religion is normally
characterized by certain elements that go
to make up the whole. Generally, these include the founder, the
teachings, the
congregation of followers, the system of worship (including rites
and ceremonies), the
religious sanctuaries, and the sacred objects within the framework
of that particular
religion. The Buddhist institution, with its own distinct
character and culture, fits this
description, being a complete system of thought and training.
The Buddha was the founder of
Buddhism. Some religions, such as Hinduism, cannot
ascribe their establishment to any one personality, owing their
existence to an ancient
tradition, the origin of which has long been lost in antiquity. Of
those which are founded
on a historical personality, their founders mostly claim affinity
to, and connection with,
a divine power, and are therefore compelled to demand
unquestioning faith from their
followers. The Buddha was a historical personality who made no
such claims and who taught
his followers without subscribing to any divine grace or
supernatural powers.
The Buddha's teachings are known as
the Dhamma. In fact, this is the most important
ingredient in the Buddhist religious system. As Buddhism is a
religion based on knowledge
and enlightenment, the validity and value of the Dhamma naturally
assume prime
significance in the whole system as opposed to belief and faith,
as in theistic religions.
The followers or believers form
another important component of a religion, for without
them the religion would prove of little benefit. In Buddhism, the
congregation is broadly
divided into two groups, the religious (monks and nuns) and the
laity. Each of these two
is clearly defined by rules and responsibilities and by the manner
of their mutual
interaction which, in turn, serves as a spiritual bond and a
traditional basis for close
cooperation. The responsibility for preserving and promoting the
Buddha's teachings lies
in the hands of these two groups of Buddhist followers.
Basic Buddhist systems of worship,
including rites and ceremonies, date back to the
time of the Buddha. There are, however, later developments which
evolved over the
centuries in response to the cultural and spiritual needs of the
followers in particular
geographical regions. Thus, there are differences in the form of
worship practiced, for
instance, in Thailand and Japan. But we may consider this
phenomenon a natural cultural
manifestation common in all religious systems.
Buddhist sanctuaries are places of
worship and residences for the religious. These
include monasteries, shrines, Dhamma halls, stupas, pagodas, and
sacred reliquaries. Often
Thai monasteries, which also serve as centers for communal
activities, occasionally do
accommodate secular functions such as community meetings and
cultural gatherings. In
general, these places are built and maintained solely through
support freely given by the
lay community.
Sacred objects in Buddhism include
Buddha images, relics of the Buddha, symbolic
representations such as the lotus, the wheel (of Dhamma), Buddha's
footprints, and many
more. These in fact serve as objects for contemplative reflection
and as reminders of
higher values or ideals. They can be used to strengthen faith and
confidence in the Triple
Gem, or to give encouragement and hope in time of distress. On a
higher level they may
serve as a means for the attainment of Dhamma and that, indeed, is
the primary purpose for
which they were introduced into the Buddhist institution in the
first place.
The above are religious components
that constitute Buddhism as an institution. Although
the most important factor is the Dhamma, which is man's true
refuge, some people may also
feel the need for objects of psychological support to strengthen
their faith and devotion
in the religion. Thus, each component has its own place and value
and we should learn how
to best benefit from it.
Philosophy
or religion?
Strictly speaking, this matter depends
largely on how one defines the terms
"philosophy" and "religion." Webster's dictionary defines
philosophy
as "love of wisdom," as "a search for a general understanding of
values and
reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means,"
and religion simply
as "the service and worship of God or the supernatural."
One can see that neither of these
definitions satisfactorily reflects the nature and
character of Buddhism. For many people religion is nothing more
than a system of beliefs
and worship centered around God. These people would consider any
system devoid of such a
concept unworthy of inclusion into the category of religions, no
matter how exalted a
teaching it may contain. This is a rather limited view, no longer
accepted by world
religions. There are great religious systems that do not subscribe
to such a way of
thinking.
When the Buddha embarked upon his
teaching mission, there was never an issue whether he
would establish a religion or found a school of philosophy. Such
anticipation was simply
out of the question. He had realized the Dhamma, overcome Samsara,
and achieved
Supreme Enlightenment. Foremost in the functions of a Buddha is
the exposition of the
Dhamma, pointing out the way to lasting peace and happiness for
the world. After his
enlightenment, he began to share with mankind the supreme
knowledge he had attained. There
were those willing to listen and who could understand his message.
These people benefited
from the Buddha's teachings and some of them volunteered to
further spread the Dhamma.
Others volunteered to provide material support. Those who
renounced worldly life became
known as bhikkhus, collectively referred to as the
Sangha, and took to the
mendicant, homeless life. Householders continued to practice the
teachings as laymen or
laywomen and took on the responsibility of supporting the Sangha.
This was how Buddhism
evolved and developed. The core factor of all this is the Buddha's
teachings, the Dhamma.
How people referred to his teachings and the organization that
subsequently took shape was
never his concern, but he himself referred to the whole structure
simply as Dhamma-Vinaya
or the Doctrine and Discipline. Clearly, he wanted his teachings
to be something that
should be properly understood and practiced. He wanted the
Dhamma-Vinaya to be a way of
life.
A way of life -- that is exactly what
Buddhism is. It is not simply a system of
beliefs, or a speculation about values and reality, neither is it
the service and worship
of God or the supernatural. It is a system of noble principles for
man to understand and
practice; it is Truth.
Of course, Buddhism has all the
necessary components to qualify as a religion, and
there should be no argument on that point, but one should never
lose sight of the fact
that the Buddhist religion is fundamentally a way of life --
something that has to do with
life itself and the very heart of existence, not simply "the
service and worship of
God or the supernatural." In fact, this can be said of other
religions as well.
Not unlike other great religions,
Buddhism also contains many different facets to its
system. It is possible to view the same Truth from different
perspectives, and our
opinions about the Truth may vary according to how we look at it.
In the same vein, the
names that people attach to the system may also differ in
accordance with their opinions
about it. Thus one may approach Buddhism through its religious or
philosophical aspect, or
academically attempt to evaluate its ethical relevance in today's
social context,
according to one's preference. There are also the psychological,
literary, cultural,
historical, and other aspects of Buddhism that evolved as an
outcome of many interacting
conditions in the course of history. But valuable as they may
seem, these are of secondary
significance compared to its express role as a way of life.
The
Buddha's successor
The question of succession was brought
up with the Buddha by his personal
attendant, Venerable Ananda, just moments prior to the Great
Demise. The Blessed One,
however, did not appoint anyone in his place. Instead he advised
his followers to regard
the doctrine and discipline that he had taught as their teacher.
The Dhamma-Vinaya was to
succeed him as the highest authority, one from which Buddhists may
derive guidance and
instruction. This was, indeed, a farsighted proclamation. The
Buddha knew that placing
absolute powers and responsibility in the hands of any individual
could in the long run
jeopardize the institution. Even during his lifetime he had made
regulatory provisions for
the Sangha administration to be carried out through collective
deliberation and action of
its members without vesting any special privileges or prerogatives
on any individual. This
method remains the model for all ecclesiastical rites and actions
within the Sangha
institution down to the present day.
The fact that the Buddha did not
appoint any individual to succeed him is worthy of
careful consideration. At the time of his passing away, the Sangha
had already been firmly
established and there were quite a few disciples who were highly
accomplished and endowed
with superior spiritual attainments. The Buddha would have had no
difficulty whatsoever,
if he so desired, in naming a suitable successor. But he wisely
foresaw that such
appointment would set a precedent and, sooner or later, in course
of time, some unworthy
elements not befitting the lofty position would find their way to
the hierarchy. Power,
fame, and wealth have, in some intriguing way, a tendency to
corrupt otherwise decent
people, as is evident in the history of some religions, whose
internal power struggles and
dirty politics are a matter of astonishment and shame. Buddhist
history is relatively free
from this kind of pitfall, thanks to the farsightedness of the
Buddha.
Secondly, the steps taken by the
Buddha at once demonstrate both the philosophy of
non-attachment to individuals, which he took pains to emphasize
during his mission years,
and his explicit trust in the Dhamma as the true refuge in life.
At one time the Blessed
One admonished a certain monk by the name of Vakkali, who had
grown so attached to him
that he constantly followed the Buddha wherever he went. The
Buddha's words bear the most
vivid testimony of his great compassion, utter selflessness, and
his desire for the
disciple to truly benefit from the Dhamma: "Vakkali, the sight of
my person is of no
real benefit; whoever sees the Dhamma sees me." It was in this
spirit that the Buddha
advised his disciples to look up to the Dhamma-Vinaya as his
successor. History has more
than proved his foresight.
Composition
of the Buddhist following
During the time of the Buddha, Buddhist
assemblies were divided into four main
groups: monks (bhikkhu), nuns (bhikkhuni), male
lay followers (upasaka),
and female lay followers (upasika). In the Theravada
tradition the lineage of the
Order of Nuns is believed to have terminated about a thousand
years after the passing away
of the Buddha, so that bhikkhunis in the original sense
of the word no longer
exist. With an atmosphere of fresh interest and enthusiasm in the
religion among
Westerners, attempts are being made by certain groups and
organizations to revive the Bhikkhuni
Order in its earlier, pristine form. However, so far the efforts
have resulted only in
generating some general awareness but still fall short of a
complete restoration. Thus, at
present we may speak of the Buddhist following in terms of
monastic members, which include
monks and novices, and the community of laity (both men and women)
who profess a belief in
the Buddha and his teachings. These are the two major
classifications of Buddhists in the
Theravada system today.
The Mahayana tradition, however, still
maintains the Bhikkhuni Order. In those
countries where Mahayana Buddhism prevails, such as Vietnam,
Korea, and Taiwan, nuns are
very much in the forefront where religious affairs and social
welfare activities are
concerned. They assume strong leadership and contribute greatly to
the growth and
development of the religion in those lands.
In Theravada tradition monastic
members are under strict disciplinary training and are
more or less restricted in their social interaction and
participation. Nevertheless, they
do command faith and respect of the lay community and are well
supported in their
spiritual endeavor. Monks take upon themselves the express duties
of preserving the
Dhamma, through study and practice, and teaching it to others.
Because of the trust and
confidence that people place in them by virtue of their moral
integrity and exemplary
conduct, they may also provide community leadership where and when
their specific services
are required. They also give counsel, especially in matters
related to religion and
spirituality, to the lay community and help maintain peace and
harmony in society. But
these may be considered natural ramifications of their foremost
duties to study and
practice the Dhamma, and to attain the highest liberation, which
is Nibbana.
Monks and novices lead a different
life-style from that of laymen. They live in
monasteries in an environment especially structured for scriptural
studies and religious
training. They follow strict rules of conduct, much more numerous
and detailed than those
of lay devotees. They sacrifice the life of comfort and pleasure
of a layman for the life
of austerity and service of a monastic order. Such a sacrifice
calls for a deep sense of
self-negation, altruism, and compassion. It is a life dedicated to
personal enlightenment
as well as social well-being.
Despite their different way of life,
however, monastic members do not cut themselves
off entirely from the mainstream of society. Although social
interaction and participation
is limited, there is enough to maintain a certain level of
cooperation between them and
the laity. In Thailand, a strong Buddhist country, the Department
of Religious Affairs
within the Ministry of Education provides a regular channel of
communications between the
Sangha and the state. His Majesty the King, himself a devout
Buddhist, and the Royal
Family take a strong interest in religious affairs. They are an
important factor for the
growth and prosperity of the religion in the country.
Buddhism
and God
The concept of God is not common to all
religions. Even in theistic religions,
ideas about God and his attributes differ from one religious
tradition to another, giving
rise to conflicts as to whose God is the one and true God. Of
course, each claims its God
to be the only one, but that has hardly solved the problem.
Buddhism has been defined as a
non-theistic religion. Some scholars do not agree with
this definition, pointing to Dhamma, the eternally universal
principle, as an impersonal
God. This is rather a matter of interpretation. But all Buddhists
unanimously agree that
the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, collectively called the
Triple Gem, are the objects
of supreme veneration.
The Buddha, the historical personality
who lived almost 2,600 years ago, is the founder
of the religion; the Dhamma, as the objective manifestation of
Truth, is his teachings;
and the Sangha is the Holy Order of noble disciples who realized
the Truth after the
Buddha.
As a person, the Buddha is the
embodiment of all virtues, having discovered the Dhamma
or Truth. One can attain to the same state of enlightenment by
walking the path of Dhamma.
The Sangha are those who have traveled the path of spiritual
practice by following the
Buddha's teachings, have realized the Dhamma, and are therefore in
a position to help
others along the same spiritual path.
In essence the Buddha, the Dhamma, and
the Sangha are one and the same. The sole
element that constitutes the quality of being the Buddha and the
Sangha is none other than
the Dhamma itself. Just as a person is not a physician simply on
account of his being a
person, but rather by virtue of having certain qualities, such as
knowledge in medicine
and the ability to cure diseases, even so one is not a Buddha
because of one's birth into
a certain royal family, but rather on the condition of having
attained the quality of
Buddhahood, which is the Dhamma. The same is true with regard to
the Sangha, the
difference being that the Buddha was the first to discover the
Dhamma, while the Sangha
became enlightened by walking the spiritual path after him.
It was the Buddha who first realized
the Dhamma and taught it to the world. But without
the Dhamma, Buddhahood could not be attained. Again there would
not be the Sangha without
the Buddha and the Dhamma. But without the Sangha, the Buddha and
the Dhamma would be of
little value to the world and the religion would not have been
established; even if it
were, it would have died out with the death of the Buddha. The
three are thus interrelated
and interdependent.
Worship
in Buddhism
Like the term 'religion,' the meaning
of the word 'worship' as generally
understood is rather limited and should be redefined. According to
Webster's dictionary,
worship is "reverence offered a divine being or supernatural
power" or "an
act of expressing such reverence." All religious traditions have a
system of worship
in some form or another, and it is generally accepted as
constituting an act of faith, or
an expression thereof, toward the so-called divine being or
supernatural power. This is
not worship in Buddhism.
In Buddhism, worship is an expression
of respect and gratitude to the Triple Gem. It is
an act of veneration offered to that which is worthy, not a prayer
or a gesture of
submission to a supernatural being. Thus, although Buddha images
are used in worship,
idolatry is a practice not encouraged in Buddhism. The Buddhist
concept of worship is
totally different from that of idol worship. Its nature is more of
a spiritual practice
rather than a mere exercise in faith and devotion, although such
elements are also present
in the practice.
Fundamentally, there are three
advantages derived from an act of Buddhist worship, in
addition to the obvious benefit of fortifying faith in the Triple
Gem. First, the practice
helps to inspire virtues and inculcates the noble qualities
associated with the Triple Gem
into the mind. Wholesome qualities such as wisdom, compassion, and
purity are essential in
all spiritual efforts. Secondly, the act of worship has a deep
purifying effect on the
devotees' consciousness and the power to remove impurities from
their minds. Often, a
sense of serenity and peace is produced. Thirdly, Buddhist worship
can be performed as a
meditative exercise for developing concentration and wisdom.
Prayer for material gains and
success is, therefore, never part of true Buddhist worship, as it
would prove an obstacle
to the development of these two important qualities of mind. Undue
desire for material
objectives is based on greed and selfishness and is likely to
cause mental disturbance,
frustration, and restlessness, which are impurities of the mind.
Worship performed with
the right attitude can be of great benefit; like all other
actions, it should be based on
wisdom and understanding.
Cultural
adaptations
Just as in other ancient religions,
Buddhism has been subject to various forces
and developments through the centuries of its existence. Because
it spread to countries
far beyond the boundaries of its birthplace, Buddhism has come
into contact with varying
cultural elements and geographical conditions. In response to
those influences, the
religion has developed into different denominations, with their
own distinct
characteristics. Some of these seemingly different traditions
continue to prosper and are
more widely accepted in some countries or regions than others.
Theravada Buddhism, for
instance, is chiefly practiced in Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Cambodia, Laos, and certain
parts of India and Bangladesh, while Mahayana Buddhism is followed
in such countries as
Japan, Korea, China, Tibet, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore.
However, if one takes a closer look at
the many different Buddhist traditions that
exist today, one will immediately see that most of those apparent
differences come within
two categories. First, there are the external modifications, like
dress, ways of worship,
and mannerisms, necessitated by the different elements and
cultures that Buddhism had been
exposed to. Second, there are the differences in emphasis given by
each tradition to
certain aspects of the teaching. For example, the Theravada
tradition is characterized by
the stress it places on monastic discipline, while Mahayana
Buddhism upholds the
Bodhisattva ideal. Some Mahayana traditions also greatly emphasize
the importance of
vegetarianism. All this may create the impression that Buddhist
traditions are in
opposition to each other, but such an understanding is not well
grounded.
As far as the essence and spirit of
the teachings are concerned, there are persistent
and uniform characteristics among the many Buddhist traditions
that are far more
significant and enduring than the superficial differences. Despite
the outward diversity,
underneath it lies the eternal unity of all Buddhist
denominations, based on the Buddha's
message of wisdom and compassion.
Buddhism
and material development
It is often thought that to lead the
life of Dhamma is one thing and to be
materially successful is quite another. According to this view, to
progress materially one
must relentlessly pursue the worldly course without any
consideration whatsoever of the
Dhamma, and to lead a life of Dhamma one must be ready to renounce
the world and retire to
a forest or a cave. The image of the Dhamma practitioner never
quite seems to fit into a
worldly context and he is often viewed as something of an
anachronism. This kind of
misunderstanding exists not only among the unlettered; even the
educated are led to such
conclusions. It is an unfortunate misconception based on a lack of
knowledge on the
Dhamma.
To avoid this pitfall, students of the
Dhamma should learn to perceive the relationship
between the Dhamma and the world. In fact, there is no Dhamma
apart from the world, and no
world apart from the Dhamma. The dualistic view separating one
from the other may lead to
confusion and deleterious results, while a correct attitude will
lead to true happiness
and progress. For instance, if nuclear energy is developed without
cultivating a sense of
moral responsibility to direct the use of that technology, it is
likely that more harm
than benefit will result from it. Power and wealth without Dhamma
create fear and
insecurity. Greed may motivate the acquisition of more wealth, but
it will also cause pain
and misery, thus rendering the whole process of acquisition
meaningless.
Those who uphold the dualistic view
often perceive the Dhamma as an obstacle to
material development and progress. A businessman with such a
philosophy will do anything
to make more profits for himself and his company; a politician
with the same outlook will
strive to gain more and more power, through means fair and foul; a
teenager with this
misconception would go out of his way to pursue carnal pleasure
and excitement just to
gratify his senses. In all these cases, there is no place for the
Dhamma; such people
would see practicing the Dhamma as an obstacle to achieving their
desired objectives.
However, with right understanding, we
will see that the Dhamma is truly the basis for
real progress, even in material concerns. Perseverance, energy,
dedication to work, to
name a few, are important qualities that are essential for success
even in the pursuit of
material ambitions. With kindness and compassion, those ambitions
can be transformed from
tools for selfish satisfaction to actions which benefit fellow
beings in society and bear
a lasting testimony of one's virtue. A politician who practices
Dhamma will turn his power
and energy and the people's trust into an instrument for peace,
social justice, and
further progress, rather than using them for his own selfish
gains. A scientist with a
heart of Dhamma will endeavor to make sure that his discoveries or
inventions enhance
well-being and happiness for the world rather than destruction and
suffering. A Dhamma
practitioner who perceives the unity of the world and the Dhamma
will not be content
merely to cultivate passive love and compassion, but will ensure
that such noble qualities
of heart are translated into action that will benefit the world.
He does not run away from
the world simply to practice Dhamma for its own sake, but will try
to make Dhamma grow in
the world, and the world in the Dhamma. Thus Dhamma and the world
are perceived in a
balanced way as the Buddha intended.
External progress, according to
Buddhism, must therefore be coupled with internal
development. In other words, material progress must be accompanied
by spiritual
development; the practice of Dhamma should be directed toward
active service to society.
Other than the necessary requisites, we also need moral values,
good ethics and a sense of
responsibility.
Becoming
a Buddhist
Technically speaking, to take refuge in
the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha
constitutes being a Buddhist. This can be done either by making a
conscious,
non-ceremonial commitment to the Triple Gem, or by going through a
ceremony officiated by
a Buddhist monk. During the time of the Buddha we hear of people,
sometimes as many as
hundreds or thousands, who, having been inspired by a discourse
from the Buddha, made
declarations of faith in the Triple Gem, becoming followers of the
Buddha without any
special ceremony. In any case, the most important factor is a
willingness to practice
according to the Buddha's teachings and to lead the life of a
Buddhist. In the Anguttara
Nikaya [a part of the Buddhist Pali Canon], the Buddha talks
about five qualities of
a good Buddhist: confidence and faith in the Triple Gem; being
well-trained in moral
conduct; faith in kamma (one's actions), never in
superstition; not seeking a
'field of merits' outside the Buddha's teachings; and paying
constant attention to the
prosperity of Buddhism.
Fundamental to all Buddhists is the
observance of the five precepts, which enjoin
against killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, falsehood, and
intoxicants. Breaking a
precept negatively affects the quality of one's status as a
Buddhist. The transgressed
precepts may be renewed by making a fresh commitment to the moral
practice or by formally
renewing one's commitment to them in the presence of a monk. The
precepts are intended to
be a course of training in morality and a support for the practice
of Dhamma.
There are a large number of men and
women in the West today who are appreciative of
Buddhism, but are not yet ready to call themselves Buddhists. Most
of these people are
interested in finding a religious alternative and a more
meaningful way of life. They
discover in Buddhist teachings something that can answer their
intellectual curiosity and
satisfy their spiritual needs, and so they are willing to practice
the religion in their
daily life. One such person was Professor Rhys Davids, a renowned
British scholar, who
openly admitted: "I have examined every one of the great religions
of the world, and
in none of them have I found anything to surpass the beauty and
comprehensiveness of the
Four Noble Truths of the Buddha. I am content to shape my life
according to them."
Of course, Davids was a Buddhist, but
there are many Westerners like him who practice
the religion without formally identifying themselves with it. They
also benefit from the
Buddha's teachings. The Dhamma is universal; it transcends all
limitations of time and
space. It makes no distinction in terms of sex, nationality, the
color of the skin, social
status, or belief. It is open to all. Its validity does not depend
on names, titles, or
professions, neither is it restricted by temporal or spatial
conditions.
The Dhamma can, therefore, be
practiced by all people with sufficient intellectual and
spiritual maturity to understand it. However, taking refuge in the
Triple Gem and
consciously cultivating the identity of being a Buddhist can
provide a tremendous moral
support, helping to sustain one's confidence and effort through
the ups and downs of the
practice and providing a religious inspiration for walking in the
steps of the Buddha with
stronger faith and commitment.
***
[Taken from Sunthorn Plamintr's Getting
to Know Buddhism (Bangkok:
Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1994), pp. 23-39.]