- An Introduction to the
Abhidharma
- Dr. Peter Della Santina
In Chapters 30 through 41, I will discuss the
philosophical and
psychological aspects of Buddhism presented in the seven books of
the Abhidharma Pitaka of
the Pali canon. I will not look in great detail at the lists of
factors, or dharmas, found
in many competent books on the Abhidharma. Instead, my objectives
here are three: (1) to
outline and describe the principal methods and characteristics of
the Abhidharma, (2) to
relate the Abhidharma to what we generally know about the
teachings of the Buddha, and (3)
to relate Abhidharma philosophy to our situation as lay Buddhists.
Throughout the history of Buddhism, the
Abhidharma has been held in
high esteem. In the books of the Pali canon, for example, the
Abhidharma is spoken of in
terms of praise and special regard. There the Abhidharma is the
special domain of the
elder monks; novices are even asked not to interrupt the Elders
when they are engaged in a
discussion of the Abhidharma. We also find the Abhidharma
recommended only for those who
sincerely strive to realize the goal of Buddhist practice, and
that a knowledge of it is
recommended for teachers of the Dharma.
This traditional regard for the Abhidharma is
found not only in the
Theravada tradition but in other major Buddhist traditions as
well. For instance,
Kumarajiva, the great Central Asian translator renowned for his
translation of Madhyamaka
works into Chinese, is said to have firmly believed that he must
introduce the Abhidharma
to the Chinese if he wished to teach them Buddhist philosophy. In
the Tibetan tradition,
also, the Abhidharma is an important part of monastic training.
Why is the Abhidharma held in such high esteem?
The basic reason is
that a knowledge of the Abhidharma, in the general sense of
understanding the ultimate
teaching, is absolutely necessary to achieve wisdom, which is in
turn necessary to achieve
freedom. No matter how long one meditates or how virtuous a life
one leads, without
insight into the real nature of things, one cannot achieve
freedom.
A knowledge of the Abhidharma is necessary in
order to apply the
insight into impermanence, impersonality, and insubstantiality
that we gain from a reading
of the Sutra Pitaka to every experience of daily life. All of us
may glimpse impermanence,
impersonality, and insubstantiality through reading the Sutra
Pitaka, but how often can we
apply that momentary intellectual truth to our daily existence?
The system in the
Abhidharma teaching provides a mechanism for doing so. A study of
the Abhidharma is
therefore extremely useful for our practice.
Let us consider the origin and authenticity of
the Abhidharma. The
Theravada school holds that the Buddha is the source of the
Abhidharma philosophy and was
himself the first master of the Abhidharma because, on the night
of his enlightenment, he
penetrated the essence of the Abhidharma. According to a
traditional account, the Buddha
also spent the fourth week after his enlightenment in meditation
on the Abhidharma. This
is the week known as 'the House of Gems.' Later in his career, it
is said that the Buddha
visited the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, where his mother was, and
taught the Abhidharma to
her and the gods. It is said that when he returned to earth, he
passed on the essentials
of what he had taught to Sariputta--hardly a coincidence, since
Sariputta was his foremost
disciple, renowned for his wisdom.
Thus it is claimed in general that it is the
Buddha to whom we owe the
inspiration of the Abhidharma teaching. This inspiration was
passed on to his disciples
who were philosophically gifted, like Sariputta, and by the effort
of these gifted
disciples the general outline and contents of Abhidharma
philosophy were established.
Let us go on to consider the meaning of the
term abhidharma. If we look
carefully at the Sutra Pitaka, we find this term occurring
frequently, usually in the
general sense of 'meditation about Dharma,' 'instruction about
Dharma,' or 'discussion
about Dharma.' In a more specific sense, abhidharma means 'special
Dharma,' 'higher
Dharma,' or 'further Dharma.' Here, of course, we are using Dharma
in the sense of
doctrine or teaching, not in the sense of phenomenon or factor of
experience (in which
case it would not be capitalized).
There is an even more technical sense in which
the term abhidharma is
used in the Sutra Pitaka, and in this context dharma no longer
means doctrine in general
but, rather, phenomenon. This technical use is associated with
another function, that is
to make distinctions. This most technical use of the term
abhidharma has five aspects, or
meanings: (a) to define dharmas; (b) to ascertain the relationship
between dharmas; (c) to
analyze dharmas; (d) to classify dharmas, and (e) to arrange
dharmas in numerical order.
The Buddhist canon is divided into three collections (literally,
'baskets'): the Sutra
Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, and the Abhidharma Pitaka. The Sutra
Pitaka is ordinarily
termed the basket of the discourses, the Vinaya Pitaka contains
the rules covering the
monastic community, and the Abhidharma Pitaka is normally referred
to as the books of
Buddhist philosophy and psychology. Here I would like to look at
the relationship between
the Abhidharma Pitaka and the Sutra Pitaka. There is a great deal
of Abhidharmic material
in the Sutra Pitaka. Remember the technical definition of
abhidharma that we considered a
moment ago. Keeping that in mind, we find in the Sutra Pitaka a
number of discourses that
are Abhidharmic in character: the Anguttara Nikaya, which presents
an exposition of
teachings arranged in numerical order; the Sangiti Sutta and
Dasuttara Sutta, in which
Sariputta expounds on items of the teachings arranged in numerical
order; and the Anupada
Sutta, a discourse in which Sariputta analyzes his meditative
experience in Abhidharmic
terms.
How, then, can we arrive at a distinction
between the Abhidharma and
the sutras? To do this we need to look at the second meaning of
the term abhidharma,
namely, its use in the sense of 'higher doctrine.' In the sutras
the Buddha speaks from
two points of view. First he speaks of beings, objects, the
qualities and possessions of
beings, the world, and the like, and he is often found making
statements such as 'I myself
will go to Uruvela.' Second, the Buddha proclaims in no uncertain
terms that there is no
'I' and that all things are devoid of personality, substance, and
so forth. Obviously, the
two standpoints in operation here are the conventional (vohara)
and the ultimate
(paramattha). We have everyday language like 'you' and 'I,' and we
also have technical
philosophical language that does not assume personality, objects,
and so forth.
This is the difference between the Sutric
contents and the Abhidharmic
contents of the teachings of the Buddha. By and large, the sutras
use the conventional
standpoint while the Abhidharma uses the ultimate standpoint. Yet
there are passages in
the sutras that describe impermanence, impersonality or
insubstantiality, elements, and
aggregates, and hence reflect the ultimate standpoint. In this
context there is also a
division of texts into those whose meaning is explicit and direct,
and those whose meaning
is implicit and indirect.
Why did the Buddha resort to these two
standpoints, the conventional
and the ultimate? For the answer we need to look at his excellence
as a teacher and skill
in choosing methods of teaching. If the Buddha had spoken to all
his audiences only in
terms of impermanence, insubstantiality, elements, and aggregates,
I do not think the
Buddhist community would have grown as quickly as it did during
the sixth century B.C.E.
At the same time, the Buddha knew that the ultimate standpoint is
indispensable for a
profound understanding of the Dharma, so his teachings do contain
specific language for
expressing the ultimate standpoint.
-oOo-
[Taken from Peter Della Santina., The
Tree of Enlightenment. (Taiwan:
The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 1997),
pp. 271-275].