TSO-CH'AN
By Master Sheng-Yen（圣严法师）
中华佛学研究所所长、东吴大学哲学系教授
中华佛学学报第二期(1988.10月出版)
页361-386
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Origins of the Term Tso-ch'an
The Chinese term tso-ch'an 坐禅（ zazen ） was in
use among Buddhist practitioners even before the
appearance of the Ch'an (Zen) School. Embedded in the
term is the word ch'an, a derivative of the Indian
dhyana, which is the yogic practice of attaining
samadhi in meditation. Literally translated, tso-
ch'an means "sitting ch'an" and has a comprehensive
and a specific meaning. The comprehensive meaning
refers to any type of meditation practice based on
taking the sitting posture. The specific meaning
refers to the methods of practice that characterize
Ch'an Buddhism.
The earliest Chinese translations of Buddhist
sutras that describe methods of samadhi appear around
the end of the second century A.D. The most famous
of these was the Tso-ch'an ching 坐禅经, The Sutra of
Sitting Ch'an, translated by K'ang Seng-hui 康僧会.
In the beginning of the fifth century A.D.,
Kumarajiva 鸠摩罗什 translated a large number of
sutras on the practice of samadhi. One of these was
the Tso-ch'an san-mei ching 坐禅三昧经. The Sutra on
Tso-ch'an and Samadhi. So we see that the term tso-
ch'an was used in China as early as the second cent-
ury, and there are at least two sutras that use the
term in their titles. We know that many monks during
this time practiced tso-ch'an to achieve samadhi in
the Indian tradition. This is especially revealed in
the chapter Hsi-ch'an p'ien 习禅篇, On Cultivating
Ch'an, in the Kao-seng chuan 高僧传, The Biographies
of Eminent Monks. This was compiled in the Liang Dy-
nasty 梁朝 (502-557).
During the Sui Dynasty 隋朝 (589-617) the T'ien-
t'ai 天台 master Chin-I 智顗wrote the Hsiao chin-
kuan 小止观. The Minor
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Treatise on Samatha-Vipasyana. In it he describes
tso-ch'an in terms of three aspects: how to regulate
one's body, one's breath, and one's mind. In the
section on regulating the body, the posture of sitting
meditation is the most important factor. In a later
work called Ta chih-kuan 摩诃止观, The Major Treatise
on Samatha-Vipasyana, he described four methods
to attain samadhi. The first method is called samadhi
Through Constant Sitting 常坐三昧, the second,
Samadhi Through Constant Walking 常行三昧. The third
is Samadhi Through Half Walking, Half Sitting 半行半
坐三昧. The fourth is The Samadhi Neither Through
walking Nor Sitting 非行非坐三昧.
Tso-ch'an and Samadhi
The references above show that several centuries
before the coming of the Ch'an schools, tso-ch'an
already reached a high state of development in
China, both as a practice and a scriptural topic.
These references also show the close association
between tso-ch'an and samadhi in Chinese Buddhist
practice prior to Ch'an.
What is samadhi? Indian tradition defines nine
levels of samadhi, each with its identifying
characterisitcs. For our purposes, however, we need
only to provide a general definition of samadhi. If,
through practice, especially tso-ch'an, one can get
one's mind to a unified state, this state can be
called samadhi. To say that the mind is unified
doesn't mean that the person has a sense or idea of
being coextensive with the universe. Rather, it means
that the mind is simply not moving. There is no
distinction between inside and outside, self and
environment.
There is no sense of time and space. There is
only the sense of existence. So this state of united
mind is called samadhi. This is not a state of
nothought, or no-mind, since there is at least the
awareness of self experiencing samadhi. It is a state
of one-thought, or one-mind, and is not considered
enlightenment in Ch'an.
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Roots of Tso-ch'an in India
In most spiritual traditions of India, the yogis
practice dhyana to attain samadhi at its various
levels. After years of austere practice as a yogi,
the self-exiled Indian prince Siddhartha recognized
that his realization was incomplete. He sat under the
bodhitree vowing not to rise until he had resolved
the question of death and rebirth. Only when he
became enlightened one evening, after seeing a bright
star, did he rise. He had become the Buddha, the
primal transmitter of Buddhism in our epoch. The
Buddha's experience became the paradigm of tso-ch'an
practice.
With the rise of Buddhism, two forms of practice
developed. One is called samadhi liberation and the
other is called wisdom liberation. The practice of
wisdom liberation does not cultivate the nine
levels of samadhi. but goes directly into the
enlightened state. Ch'an follows the path of wisdom
liberation.
Tso-ch'an of the Patriarchs
When pre-Ch'an masters practiced, they mostly
used the methods given in the translated Hinayana
sutras. For them, tso-ch'an referred to methods of
sitting to attain samadhi. But among the later
masters of Ch'an, the term was reserved for methods
of attaining enlightenment without samadhi as an
intermediate or final stage.
The First Patriarch of Ch'an, the Indian monk
Bodhidharma 菩提达摩, arrived in China around 520 A.
D., and established himself in the Shao Lin Temple
少林寺. There he wrote the treatise, Erh ju ssu hsing
二入四行. The Two Entries and the Four Practices. One
of the entries was the Entry Through Principle 理入.
This was in fact direct penetration to the
experience of Buddha-nature. According to legend,
Bodhidharma sat facing the wall in the temple for
nine years. The posture he used was the same as those
used by previous masters to attain samadhi. He sat
with
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crossed legs and concentrated mind. However, the
goal was different it was to develop wisdom without
going through samadhi. He did not use the Hinayana
methods such as visualizing the parts of one's body.
Bodhidharma's approach was based on the Lankavatara
Sutra which advised "taking no door as the Dharma
door" and "not using any language, words or symbols
as the foundation."
While the historical facts of Bodhidharma's life
are scant, there is no doubt that he practiced
tso-ch'an. There is also little doubt that he was
enlightened before going to China. Even so, when he
settled in the Shao-Lin Temple, he continued
tso-ch'an practice. His great contribution to Ch'an
was his insistence on directly experiencing
Buddha-nature through Tso-ch'an.
The Fourth Patriarch Tao-hsin 道信（580-651 ）
wrote Ju-tao anhsin yao fang-pien men 入道安心要方便
门. The Methods for Entering the Path and Calming
the Mind. In it, he quoted from the Lankavatara Sutra
and the Wen-shu shuo po-jo ching 文殊说般若经. The
Prajna Sutra Spoken by Manjusri. He stresses the
importance of tso-ch'an for the beginner, with
emphasis on the right posture. The neophyte must then
contemplate the five skandhas the material skandha of
form (the elements), and the four mental skandhas :
feeling, perception, phenomena, and consciousness.
The Manjusri Sutra says, "He should contemplate the
five skandhas as originally empty and quiescent,
non-arising, non-perishing, equal, without
differentiation. Constantly thus practicing, day or
night, whether sitting, walking, standing or lying
down, finally one reaches an inconceivable state
without any obstruction or form. This is the Samadhi
of One Act (I-hsing sanmei) 一行三昧."
In a sense, the Fourth Patriarch is describing
the two meanings of tso-ch'an in Ch'an. In the
beginning the practitioner starts by taking the
sitting posture. He will use simple and basic methods
of regulation the body and mind. At an advanced
stage,
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he will not be limited to sitting, but in any posture,
his mind will be in accord with the Samadhi of
One Act.
His disciple, the Fifth Patriarch Hung-jen (602-
675), wrote an essay, Hsiu-hsing Yao Lun, 修行要论,
The Essentials of Cultivation, which emphasizes
sitting. He quoted from the I-chiao ching 遗教经, The
Sutra of the Buddha's Last Bequest, which says "When
the mind is placed at one point, there is nothing
that cannot be attained." The one-pointedness of mind
to which he referred was not samadhi, but one's
original or true mind. He also said that correct posture
is critical. Beginners should, for example,
follow the Kuan wu-liang shou fo ching 观无量寿佛经,
Sutra of Contemplation on the Buddha of Unlimited
Life, which says that one should sit upright with
correct thoughts, closing one's eyes and mouth, and
sit day and night. From many sources we can see that
the Fifth Patriarch did sit a lot. The Biographies
of Eminent Monks 高僧传 describe the Fifth Patriarch
foregoing sleep to sit all night. In the same book,
Shen-hsiu 神秀（active 671-706）, a disciple of Hung
-jen 弘忍 and founder of the Northern Branch of the
Ch'an School, is described as taking tso-ch'an as
his main job.
Hui-neng 惠能（638-713）, who succeeded Hung-jen
as the Sixth Patriarch, was not an advocate as
sitting as the path to enlightenment. With him, we
have a distinction between tso-ch'an which attains
enlightenment through sitting, and tso-ch'an which
attain enlightenment without sitting. Hui-neng had a
different interpretation of what tso-ch'an means. He
said that when there is no mind, or no thoughts
arising, that is called "sitting" (tso). When you see
internally that the self-nature is not moving, that
is Ch'an.
This was different from the sitting tso-ch'an of
Bodhidharma. The Sixth patriarch took his inspiration
from the Samadhi of One Act, described in the
Manjusri Sutra mentioned above. The method is to put
your mind steadfastly on the One Dharma Realm
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一法界, in which there is no differentiation into
forms. Quoting from the Vimalakirti Sutra 维摩诘经,
he also said, "The straight-forward mind is the Path
." Its meaning is that all forms are equivalent to
one form. Any time, any place, whether walking,
standing, sitting or lying down, there is no
situation that is not an opportunity to practice
tso-ch'an. In this view sitting was not only not
necessary, but could be a hindrance.
Fundamentals of Tso-ch'an
As we saw above, tso-ch'an was practiced in China
long before the appearance of Ch'an. The earlier
masters practiced according to methods in the
Hinayana sutras, which emphasized the techniques
collectively known as samatha-vipasyana. Generally
speaking, these were methods for achieving samadhi
through three aspects: regulating one's body,
regulating one's breathing, and regulating one's
mind.
Regulating the Body by Sitting
To regulate the body by sitting, one should ob-
serve the Vairocana Seven-Points of Sitting 毘卢遮那
七支坐法. This refers to the seven rules of correct
sitting posture. Each of these criteria has been used
unchanged since ancient days.
Point One: The Legs
Sit on the floor with legs crossed either in the
Full Lotus or Half Lotus position. To make the Full
Lotus, put the right foot on the left thigh, then
put the left foot crossed over the right leg onto
the right thigh. To reverse the direction of the
feet is also acceptable.
To take the Half Lotus position requires that
one foot be crossed over onto the thigh of the other.
The other foot will be placed underneath the raised
leg.
The Full or Half Lotus are the correct tso-ch'an
postures
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according to the seven-point method. However, we
will describe some alternative postures since for
various reasons, people may not always be able to
sit in the Full or Half Lotus.
A position, called the Burmese position, is
similar to the Half Lotus, except that one foot is
crossed over onto the calf, rather than the thigh, of
the other leg. Another position consists in kneeling
. In this position, kneel with the legs together. The
upper part of the body can be erect from knee to
head, or the buttocks can be resting on the heels.
If physical problems prevent sitting in any of
the above positions, then sitting on a chair is
possible, but as a last resort to the above postures.
The positions above are given in the preferred
order, the Full Lotus being the most stable, and most
conductive to good results. Sitting cross-legged
is most conducive to sitting long periods with
effective concentration. The position one can take
depends on factors such as physical condition,
health, and age. However, one should use the position
in which prolonged sitting (at least twenty minutes
or more) is feasible and reasonably comfortable.
however, do not use a position that requires little,
or the least effort, because without significant
effort, no good results can be attained.
If sitting on the floor, sit on a Japanese-style
zafu (round meditation cushion) or an improvised
cushion, several inches thick. This is partly for
comfort, but also because it is easier to maintain
an erect spine if the buttocks are slightly raised.
Place a larger, square pad, such as a Japanese
zabuton, underneath the cushion. Sit with the
buttocks towards the front half of the cushion, the
knees resting on the pad.
Point Two: The Spine
The spine must be upright. This does not mean to
thrust your chest forward, but rather to make sure
that your lower back is
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erect, not just slumped. The chin must be tucked in
a little bit. Both of these points together cause
you to naturally maintain a very upright spine. An
upright spine also means a vertical spine, leaning
neither forward or backward, right or left.
Point Three: The Hands
The hands form a so-called Dharma Realm Samadhi
Mudra 法界定印. The open right palm is underneath,
and the open left palm rests in the right palm. The
thumbs lightly touch to form a closed circle or
oval. The hands are placed in front of the abdomen,
and rest on the legs.
Point Four: The Shoulders
Let the shoulders be relaxed, the arms hanging
loosely. There should be no sense of your shoulders,
arms or hands. If you have any sensation of these
parts, there is probably tension in those areas.
Point Five: The Tongue
The tip of the tongue should be lightly
touching the roof of the mouth just behind the front
teeth. If you have too much saliva, you can let go of
this connection. If you have no saliva at all, you
can apply greater pressure with the tip of the
tongue.
Point Six: The Mouth
The mouth must always be closed. At all times,
breath through the nose, not through the mouth.
Point Seven: The Eyes
The eyes should be slightly open and gazing
downward at a forty-five degree angle. Rest the eyes
in that direction, trying not to stare at anything.
closing the eyes may cause drowsiness, or visual
illusions. However, if your eyes feel very tired you
can
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close them for a short while.
Regulating the Body by Walking
Regulating the body by walking consists of slow
walking and fast walking. Walking meditation is
especially useful for a change of pace when engaged
in prolonged sitting, such as on personal or group
retreats Periods of walking can be taken between
sittings.
In slow walking, the upper body should be in the
same posture as in sitting, the difference being in
the position of the hands. The left palm should lightly
enclose the right hand, which is a loosely formed fist.
The hands should be held in front of, but not touching,
the abdomen. The forearms should be parallel to the
ground. The attention should be on bottom of the feet
as you walk very slowly, the steps being short, about
the length of one's foot. If walking in an enclosed
space, walk in a clockwise direction.
Fast walking in done by walking rapidly without
actually running. The main difference in posture
from slow walking is that the arms are now dropped
to the sides, swinging forwards and backwards, as in
natural walking. Take short fast steps, keeping the
attention on the feet.
Supplementary Exercise
Sitting and walking are the two basic methods of
regulating your body. There is a supplementary aspect
which is to exercise for a short period after sitting,
even if you only do one sitting per day. The form of
exercise is a matter of individual choice, but it
should be moderate, such as T'ai Chi 太极 or Yoga.
Regulation the Breath
Regulation the breath is very simple. It's just
your natural breathing. Do no try to control your
breathing. The breath is
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used as a way to focus, to concentrate the minds. In
other words, we bring the two things regulating the
breathing and regulating the mind - together.
Regulating the Mind by Counting the Breath
The basic method of regulating the mind is to
count one's breath in a repeating cycle of ten
breaths. The basic idea is that by concentration on
the simple technique of counting, this leaves the
mind with less opportunity for wandering thoughts.
Starting with one, mentally (not vocally) count each
exhalation until you reach ten, keeping the attention
on the counting. After reaching ten, start the cycle
over again, starting with one. Do not count during
the inhalation, but just keep the mind on the intake
of air through the nose. If wandering thoughts occur
while counting, just ignore them and continue
counting. If wandering thoughts cause you to lose
count, or go beyond ten, as soon as you become aware
of it, start all over again at one.
If you have so many wandering thoughts that keep
ing count is difficult or impossible, you can vary
the method, such as counting backwards from ten to
one, or counting by twos from two to twenty. By giving
yourself best employed when
your breathing has naturally descended to the
abdomen. The technique consists simply in mentally
follwing the movements of the tan-t'ien as the
abdomen moves in and out as a natural consequence of
breathing. This method is more energetic than the
methods of breath counting or following, and should
be used only after gaining some proficiency in those
methods. In any case, the method should not be
forced.
General Instructions
Although the methods of tso-ch'an given above
are simple and straightforward, it is best to
practice them under the guidance of a teacher.
Without a teacher, a meditator will not be able to
correct beginner's mistakes, which if uncorrected,
could lead to problems or lack of useful results.
In practicing tso-ch'an, it is important that
body and mind be relaxed. If one is physically or
mentally tense, trying to do tso-ch'an can be
counter-productive. Sometimes certain feelings or
phenomena arise while meditating. If you are relaxed,
whatever symptoms arise are usually good. It can be
pain, soreness, itchiness, warmth or coolness, these
can all be beneficial. But in the context of
tenseness, these same symptoms may indicate
obstacles.
For example, despite being relaxed when doing
tso-ch'an,
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you may sense pain in some parts of the body.
Frequently, this may mean that tensions you were not
aware of are benefiting from the circulation of blood
and energy induced by meditation. A problem
originally existing may be alleviated. On the other
hand, if you are very tense while doing tso-ch'an and
feel pain, the reason may be that the tension is
causing the pain. So the same symptom of pain can
indicate two different causes: an original problem
getting better, or a new problem being created.
A safe and recommended approach is to initially
limit sitting to half an hour, or two half-hour
segments, in as relaxed a manner as possible. This
refers not only to your inner, but also your outer
environment. For beginners, if the mind is burdened
with outside concerns, it may be better to relieve
some of these burdens before sitting. For this
reason, it is best to sit early in the morning,
before dealing with the problems of the day. Sitting
times may be increased with experience. But people
who do tso-ch'an for extended periods may become so
engrossed in their effort that they may not recognize
their tensions. This frequently exists because their
minds are preoccupied getting results. So to work
hard on tso-ah'an means to just put your mind on
tso-ch'an itself. If you can just do that, these is
no need for tension to arise. On the contrary, deeper
relaxation, and calming of the body and mind should
uld result.
The Tso-ch'an of "outer Paths" 外道禅
In his Liusu t'an ching 六祖坛经, The Platform
Sutra, Hui-neng 惠能 says that if one were to stay
free from attachment to any mental or physical
realms, and to think of neither good nor evil, that
is, refrain from discriminating, neither thought nor
mind will arise. This would be the true "sitting" of
will arise. This would be the true "sitting" of
Ch'an. Here, "sitting", not limited to mere physical
sitting, refers to a practice where the mind is not
influenced, disturbed, or distracted, by anything
coming up, whether internally or in the environment.
If you were
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to experience your self-nature, this would be called
"Ch'an" (Kensho in Zen). To see self-nature is to
see one's own unmoving Buddha-nature, and is the mo
st fundamental level of enlightenment. Without
tso-ch'an in this sense, one cannot attain Ch'an.
Hence tso-ch'an is the method, Ch'an the result.
Since Ch' an is sudden enlightenment, when it occurs,
it is simultaneous with tso-ch'an.
Hui-neng was critical of certain attitudes in
practice which did not conform to his criteria of
the true tso-ch'an which leads to Ch'an. These
practices are referred to as "outer path" tso-ch'an
because they are also found in other disciplines, for
example, Taoism. A couple of anecdotes will illustrate
some of these not-Ch'an attitudes in tso-ch'an.
The first anecdote involves a disciple of
Hui-neng's Nan-Yueh Huai-jang 南岳怀怀让 (677-744).
Huai-jang observed a monk named Ma-tsu 马祖 (709-788)
who had a habit of doing tso-ch'an all day long.
Realizing this was no ordinary monk, Huai-jang asked
Ma-tsu, "why are you cd" is mind which is involved in
the ordinary world, and moves as usual, but is not
attached to anything. Another sense comes from the
root meanings of the words p'ing 平 and ch' ang 常,
and can be construed to mean a mind which is "level"
and "constant", that is, in a state of constant
equanimity. In either sense, there is no
attachment. So the point is, the kind of tso-ch'an
that Ma-tsu did before he met Huai-jang emphasized
physi- cal aspects at the expense of being grounded
in mind.
The second "outer path" anecdote also involves
disciples of Hui-neng. When Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien 石
头希迁 (700-790) was a young monk, he approached the
dying Hui-neng and asked, "Master, after you pass
away, what should I do?" Hui-neng said, "You should
go to Hsing-szu". Shih-tou understood him to say
hsun-szu 寻思, which means "seek thoughts". This was
actually a term for the method of meditating by
watching one's thoughts. Shih- t'ou was unaware that
there was another disciple of the Sixth Patriarch by
the name of Ch'ing-yuan Hsing-szu 青原行思 (?-740),
so he just assumed that the master told him to prac-
tice watching his thoughts. After Hui-neng died,
Shih-tou constantly sought out very isolated, quiet
places and spent his time in tso-ch'an, neglecting
all else, An elder in the assembly saw this and
asked,
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"The master is dead; what are you doing here in
empty sitting?" Shih-t'ou replied, "I am only
following the master's instructions. He told me to
watch my thoughts." The elder said, "you should
realize you have an elder Dharma brother whose name
is Hsing-szu. Why don't you hurry and go to study
with him?"
Indeed, the tso-ch'an which consists in sitting
in a quiet place, immersed in tranquillity, is widely
practiced. This kind of tso-ch'an, which Shih- t'ou
practiced until he learned of his error, was also
criticized by Hui-neng in the Ching-te ch'uan teng lu
景德传灯录， The Transmission of the Lamp. In it, he
said, "if you hold the mind and contemplate silently,
this is a disease and not Ch'an. Constantly sitting,
restraining your body, how does this help the
principle (of attaining enlightenment)?" Using this
kind of tso-ch'an, one can enhance health and mental
calmness, even attain samadhi. But for a
practitioner who has become attached to such peaceful
meditation, the habit can become an obstacle.
Both of these anecdotes are critical of certain
kinds of attitudes in practicing tso-ch'an. Insofar
as they are similar to "outer path" methods, they
are not correct Ch'an. The masters were not critical
of tso-ch'an itself, which is a necessary practice
to make progress in Ch'an, especially for beginners.
The great masters practiced tso-ch'an, even if they
were sometimes critical of practitioners who had
"Ch'an sickness." And most continued practicing even
after becoming enlightened, sometimes very intensively.
In the Biography of Eminent Monks 高僧传, it is
said that that Master Pai-chang Huai-hai 百丈怀海
(720-814) established the design for the living
quarters of his monastery. In the meditation hall
there were long, connected sleeping platforms. Its
purpose was for people who had been meditation for a
long time to take a break and lie down. From this
description we can infer that the intent was for
monks to spend most of their time in tso-ch'an, and
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only minimal time in sleeping. This in spite of the
fact that Pai-chang was a disciple of Ma-tsu, who as
a master, advocated non-sitting methods. This same
design was used in many future monasteries.
The Tso-ch'an of Ch'an
At the beginning of the article we said that the
term tso-ch'an had both a comprehensive and a
specific meaning. The comprehensive meaning refers to
any type of meditation based on sitting, including
the fundamental methods and the "outer path"
approaches described above. The specific meaning
refers to the specific methods developed and used by
the Ch'an masters to attain the state of seeing
Buddha-nature. This is also referred to as seeing
self-nature, wu 无, or in Japanese, kensho. The two
major methods of Ch'an which have come down to us are
the method of Silent Illumination 默照 and the method
of the kung-an 公案. Each of these methods ultimately
led to the founding of a major branch of Ch'an
Buddhism, respectively the Ts'ao-tung 曹洞 (Soto) and
the Lin-chi 临济 (Rinzai) schools.
Silent Illumination Ch'an
The term Mo-chao Ch'an 默照禅, Silent Illumination
Ch'an is associated with the Sung Dynasty master
Hung-chih Cheng-chueh 宏智正觉 (1091-1157). However,
the practice itself may be traced back at least as
far as Bodhidharma. In his treatise The Two Entries
and the Four Practices, the Entry by Principle was
described as "leaving behind the false, return to the
true: make no discrimination of self and others. In
contemplation, one is stable and unmoving, like a
wall."
In his verse Hsin hsin ming 信心铭, Affirming
Faith in Mind, the Third Patriarch, Seng-Ts'an, 僧灿
(?-?) Says:
The ultimate path has nothing difficult. Simply
avoid discrimination and selection...The mind
endures out thought for ten
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thousand years.
"one thought" refers to the mind which is
completely clear and free from attachment. "The
thousand years" is simply a very long time without
interruption. We can read similar passages in later
descriptions of Silent Illumination.
Master Shih-shuang Ch'ing-chu 石霜庆诸 (805-888)
lived on a mountain called Shih-shuang for 20 years.
His disciples just sat continually, even sleeping in
the upright position. In their stillness, they
looked like so many dead tree stumps, that they were
named "the dry wood sangha." Shih-shuang has two
famous phrases of advice. One was, "To sit Ch'an, fix
your mind on one thought for ten thousand years". The
other was, "let yourself be like cold ashes, or like
dry wood."
Hung-chih himself studied for a while with Master
K'u-mu Fa-ch'eng 枯木法成. He was called K'u-mu (dry
wood) because when he sat, his body resembled a block
of dry wood. In the hands of Hung-chih, this practice
evolved into what he called Silent Illumination. He
describes "silent sitting" thus: "Your body sits
silently; your mind, quiescent, unmoving. This is
genuine effort in practice. Body and mind are at
complete rest. The mouth so still that moss grows
around it. Grass sprouts from the tongue. Do this
without cease, cleansing the mind until it gains the
clarity of an autumn pool, bright as the moon
illuminating the evening sky."
In another place, Hung-chih said, "In this silent
sitting, whatever realms may appear, the mind is
very clear as to all the details, yet everything is
where it originally is, in its own place. The mind
stays on one thought for ten thousand year, yet does
not dwell on any forms, inside or outside."
How is Silent Illumination different from "outer
path" tso-ch'an? In criticizing other path practice,
Hui-neng used the phrase chu-hsin kuan-ching 住心观
境, or "fixing the mind on one thing and
contemplating that state." This is a method of
samadhi that
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lacks wisdom. Or more accurately, samadhi is not a
method; it is a consequence, or goal of practice. It
has no space, no time, no sense of environment.
Silent Illumination is different in that, while it
keeps the mind still (the silent aspect), it is clear
about the inner as well as the outer states (the
illumination aspect). Samadhi is silent but not
illuminating. In Silent Illumination there is no
abiding (chu), that is, nothing to dwell on, no place
to dwell in. In the deep level of Silent
Illunination, the mind is not influenced by or
disturbed by the environment. However, it is not
fixed in samadhi, but is in a bright state of ming 明
, or illumination. In Silent Illumination the
meditator works continually to maintain this ming.
To understand Mo-chao Ch'an, it is important to
understand that while there are no thoughts, the mind
also is still very clear, very aware. Both the
silence (mo) and the illumination (chao) must be
there. According to Hung-chih, while there is nothing
going on in your mind, you are not unaware that nothing
is happening. If your mind is unknowing, this is
Ch'an sickness, not Ch'an. So in this state, the mind
is transparent. In a sense, it is not completely
accurate to say there is nothing there, because the
transparent mind is there. But it is accurate in the
sense that there is nothing there that can become an
attachment or obstruction. At this stage, the mind is
without form. Its power is there, its function being
to fill the mind with illuminating power, like the
sun, shining everywhere. Hence, Silent Illumination
is the tso-ch'an in which there is nothing moving but
the mind is bright, illuminated.
In Zen, the form of zazen called Shikantaza is
quite similar to Silent Illumination. It was introduced
in Japan by Master Dogen (1200-1252), after his return
from study with Ch'an masters in China. In the book
Fukanzazenji, the principles of zazen for everyone,
he stressed the need for a foundation in the ordinary
methods of zazen. While he does not explicitly
discuss shikant-
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aza, he does say, "You should therefore cease from
therefore cease from practice based on intellectual
understanding, pursuing words and following after
speech, and learn the backward step that turns your
light inwardly to illuminate yourself. Body and mind
of themselves will drop away, and your original face
will manifest. "For Dogen, the method of shikantaza
is to "just sit", with no thoughts in your mind. So,
in a sense, the method is not a method at all, but
more of a prescription, or guideline. When thoughts
are abandoned, it becomes possible for the mind to
illuminate. It is also then possible to experience
satori. If such a non-attached state of mind can be
maintained, even in daily life, regardless of one's
activity, whether moving or still, you will manifest
the wisdom function, the true Ch'an.
Kung-an Ch'an 公案禅
Once, after the Buddha gave a sermon to his
senior disciples, he picked up a flower and without
saying anything, held it up before the assembly. All
the monks, except one, were mystified. Mahakasyapa
alone knew the Buddha's meaning, and saying nothing,
smiled. Thus, the Buddha transmitted to Mahakasyapa
the wordless doctrine of Mind. Although this
incident preceded by over a thousand years the rise
of Ch' an, it is often cited as an example of an
early kungan.
What is a kung-an? A kung-an is a story of an
incident between a master and one or more disciples,
which involves an understanding or experience of
enlightened mind. The incident usually, but not
always, involves dialogue. When the incident is
remembered and recorded, it become a matter of
"public record", which is the literal meaning of
kung-an. Often what makes the incident worth
recording is that, as a result of the interchange, a
disciple has had as awakening, an experience of
enlightenment. The disciple's mind, if only for an
instant, transcends attachment and logic, and sees a
glimpse of wu,
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emptiness, or Buddha-nature. At this instant, there
is a transmission of Mind 传心 between master and
disciple.
Master Chao-chou 赵州 (778-897), was asked by a
monk, "does a dog have Buddha-nature? ", to which
the master replied, "Wu", meaning no, nothing. As
kung-ans go, this is a basic one, but possibly the
most famous. In some cases, there is no record of an
awakening, but the story is remembered because it
contains, or expresses, meanings crucial to the
understanding of enlightenment. Here is another
kungan, also involving Chao-chou.
Chao-chou had a disciple who met an old woman on
the road and asked her, "How do I get to T'ai Shan
台山 (Mount T'ai)?" She said, "Just keep going." As
the monk started off, he heard the old lady remark,
"He really went!". Afterwards, the disciple mentioned
this to Chao-chou who said, "I think I'll go over
there and see for myself." When he met her, Chao-chou
asked the same question, and she said the same thing"
Just keep going." As Chao-chou started off, he heard
the old lady say again, "He really went!" When
Chao-chou returned, he said, I've seen through that
old lady. "What did Chao-chou find out about the old
lady? What is the meaning of this lengthy and obscure
kung-an?
Kung-ans occurred very early in Ch'an history
and simply become records of incidents between
masters and disciples in the context of practice.
These kunt-ans were very much alive, spontaneous.
Around the Sung Dynasty (960-1279) Ch'an masters
began using kung-ans from the records aso investigate
the meaning of the historical kung-an. In his attempt
to plumb the meaning of the kung-an, the student has
to abandon knowledge, experience, and reasoning,
since the answer is not suspectible to these methods.
He must find the answer by ts'an kung-an 参公案, by
"investigating the king-an. " This
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requires his sweeping from his consciousness
everything but the kung-an. When there is nothing in
his mind but the kung-an, there is a chance for an
experience of Ch'an, an awakening.
Closely related, but not identical to the kung-
an, is the hua-t'ou 话头. A hua-t'ou, literally "
head of a thought", is a question that the meditator
inwardly asks himself. For example, "What is wu?", or
"Who am I?". As in the kung-an, the answer is not
resolvable through reasoning, but requires ts'an
hua-t'ou 参话头, "investigating the hua-t'ou." The
meditator devotes his full attention to repeatedly,
incessantly, asking himself the hua-t'ou. His ou, but
by then Chan-chou had already left, saying nothing.
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Another way kung-an and hua-t'ou are closely
related is that a hua-t'ou can give rise to a
king-an, and vice versa. For example, the question
"The 10, 000 dharmas return to One; to what does the
One return?" was originally a dimple hua-t'ou. Once a
student asked Chao-chou this same question, to which
the master answered, "The fabric I bought from
Ch'ing-chou 青州 weighs seven chin 斤." A hua-t'ou
became a kung-an because of the interaction with the
master, and the answer he gave to it.
The central or key phrase in a kung-an frequently
serves as the source for a hua-t'ou. The often-used
hua-t'ou "What is wu?", is derived from Chao-chou's
"Does a dog have Buddha-nature?" kung-an.
P'ang Yun 庞蕴 (?-811) a lay disciple of Ma-tsu
马祖, resolved to follow the Path, threw his wealth
into the river, and became a basket weaver. While
plying his trade one day, he met a monk begging for
alms. Giving the monk some money, Layman P'ang
asked him, "what is the meaning of giving alms? "
The monk said, "I don't know. What is the meaning of
giving alms?" And Layman P'ang replied, "Very few
people have heard about it." The monk answered, "I
don't understand." And Layman P'ang asked, "who is
it that doesn't understand?" This incident became a
kung-an that gave birth to a whole series of hua-t'
ous of the "who" type. Some variations on it were
"Who is reciting Buddha's name?", "Who is investigating
Ch'an?", "Who is dragging a corpse? " ect.
However, many hua-t'ous have no relationship
whatever to kung-ans, but are simply questions
concerning Buddha-nature that either arise spontaneously,
or are assigned by the master as a method of practice.
As we said, the use of the kung-an or hua-t'ou
from previous records was not common until the Sung
dynasty 宋朝, with the appearance of The Transmission
of the Lamp 传灯录. This text contained many
spontaneous kung-ans and hua-t'ous. Fen-yang
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Shan-chao 汾阳善昭 (947-1024) compiled a collection
of 100 kung-ans, called Hsien-hsien ipai Chih 先贤一
百则, One Hundred Selections from Previous Sages.
Wu-men Hui-k'ai 无门慧开 (1183-1260) compiled a
collection of 48 kung-ans, called Wu-men kuan 无门关
(Mu-monkan), the Gateless Gate. These all promoted and
encouraged the use of kung-ans.
The records of the Ch'an sect, including the
Transmission of the Lamp, and the collections of
kung-ans, do not frequently refer to tso-ch'an practice.
It was understood that by the time practioners began
to ts'an Ch'an, they already had a very good
foundation in tso-ch'an. Such a basis is needed if
one is to effectively practice kung-an and hua-t'ou.
Beginners may get some usefulness out of the
constant repetition, but this will be similar to
chanting a mantra. Because the beginner lacks the
ability to bring his mind to a deep quiescent state,
it would be difficult, if not impossible to
experience self-nature or become enlightened.
Throughout Ch'an history we read of advanced
practitioners who visited masters in order to assess
their own understanding of Ch'an, or certify their
own attainment. These situations were well-suited
for applying the methods of kung-an and hua-t'ou. It
is important to remember that any interchange between
master and disciple can be an opportunity for a
live, spontaneous kung-an or hua-t'ou, and that these
practices should not be thought of as being limited
to the sayings and questions from the historical
record.
Ta-hui Tsung-kao 大慧宗杲 (1089-1163) was one of
the greatest advocates of kung-an practice. From his
record of sayings we see that he maintained that tso
-ch'an was very necessary to settle the wandering
mind, and bring about emergent samadhi. It is only
then that the student can effectively use the kung-
an or hua-t'ou. Even though kung-an and hua-t'ou
practice can be done while walking, standing, or even
lying down, its fundamental basis is still tso-ch'an.
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If through tso-ch'an a student's mind has become
very peaceful and stable, the application of the
kung-an or hua-t'ou may cause the rising of the Great
Doubt 大疑情. This doubt is not the ordinary doubt of
questioning the truth of an assertion. It is the
doubt that arises out of ts'an Ch'an, investigating
Ch'an. It refers to the practitioner's deeply
questioning state of mind as a result of using the
kung-an or hua-t'ou. The resolution of the kung-an or
hua-t'ou hinges on the nurturing of the great doubt.
Because the answer to his questions cannot be
resolved by logic, he must continually return to his
question, and in the process, clear his mind of
everything else except the Great Doubt.
Eventually, this accumulated "doubt mass" 疑团
can disappear in one of two ways. One way is that,
due to lack of concentration or energy, the meditator
will not be able to sustain the doubt, and it will
dissipate. Another way is that by persisting until
his doubt is like a "hot ball of iron stuck in his
throat", the doubt mass will disappear in an
expollution. If the explosion has enough energy, it is
possible that the student will experience "Ch'an",
see Buddha-nature, become enlightened. If not, there
will probably still be some attachment in his mind.
It is necessary for a master to confirm his
experience, since the student, with rare exceptions,
cannot do that himself. Even as great a master as
Ta-hui did not penetrate sufficiently on his first
experience. His master Yuan-wu K'e-ch'in 圆悟克勤
told him, "you have died, but you haven't come back
to life." He was confirmed on his second experience.
So what is a true experience? It takes an adept
master to tell. If he is not a genuine master, he
won't know the difference.
Tso-ch'an After Enlightenment
In the Sung Dynasty, Ch'ang-lu Tsung-tse 长芦宗
颐 wrote the Tso-ch'an i 坐禅仪，The Manual of tso-ch'an.
In it, he said that a person who has just experienced
Buddha-nature should con-
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tinue to practice tso-ch'an. Then it is possible to
become like the dragon who gains the water, and the
tiger who enters the mountains. The dragon gaining
the water returns to his ancestral home, and is free
to dive as deep as he wishes. The tiger entering the
mountain has no opposition; he may ascend the heights
and roam wherever he wills. So Ch'ang-lu is saying
that practicing tso-ch'an after enlightenment enhance
and deepens one's realization.
Yueh-shan Wei-yen 药山惟俨 (745-828), an
enlightened monk, was doing tso-ch'an. His master,
Shih-t'ou asked him, "What are you doing tso-ch'an
for? " Yueh-shan answered, "Not for anything." "That
means you are sitting idly", Shih-t'ou continued.
Yueh-shan said, "If this is idle sitting, then that
would be for something." The master then said, "What
is it that is not for anything?" The monk answered,
"A thousand sages won't know."
On the one hand, we say that persons who have
had realization should do tso-ch'an to enhance their
enlightenment; on the other hand, we say the
enlightened person sits without purpose. What is the
explanation? For the practitioner whose enlightenment
is not deep, practice is necessary to deepen it; for
one who is deeply enlightened, practice is just part
of daily life.
One day, when Ch'ao-chou was already thoroughly
enlightened and actively helping others, his tso-ch'
an was interrupted by a visit from a prince. He did
not rise from his seat, explaining himself with a
verse:
Ever since youth I have foregone meat. This body
is now old. When visitors come, I have no strength
to rise from the Buddha-seat.
Later, when a messenger of the prince came, Chao
-chou did rise from his seat to greet the man. Chao
chou's puzzled attendant asked him why he got up for
the man of lesser rank.
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Chao-chou said, "When people of the first rank call,
I receive them at my cushion. When the second rank
call, I come down from my cushion. But when people
of the third rank come, I go to the temple gate to
greet them." These anecdotes convey the idea that
the enlightened ancient masters still regarded
tso-ch'an as very important.
However, if we wish to practice the Samadhi of
One Act, as advocated by Hui-neng, we will remember
that in the true tso-ch'an the mind does not abide
in anything, hence is not limited to finding expression
in sitting. For one who can continuously practice
the Samadhi of One Act, the ultimate tso-ch'an is no
tso-ch'an.